Link to this headingBatteries

  • Has an Anode (-) and Cathode (+) with a separation between the two usually called an electrolyte

Link to this headingNon Rechargeable

Link to this headingZinc–carbon

  • 1.5 Volt cell
  • Precursor to Alkaline manganese dioxide
  • Specific energy: 36 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl)
  • Cathode: Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)
  • Anode: Zinc

Link to this headingAlkaline manganese dioxide

  • Simple batteries for common batteries like AA, AAA, C, D
  • 1.5 Volt cell
  • Specific energy: 85-190 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  • Cathode: Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)
  • Anode: Zinc
  • Long shelf life (5–10 years)
  • Bad for high drains

Link to this headingZinc Air

  • 1.45 Volt cell
  • Specific energy: 470 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  • Cathode: Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)
  • Anode: Zinc
  • Short shelf life once opened

Link to this headingSilver-oxide

  • 1.55 Volt cell
  • Specific energy: 130 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  • Cathode: Silver oxide
  • Anode: Zinc
  • Expensive due to silver content

Link to this headingLithium Manganese dioxide (Li-MnO₂)

  • Used in Coin cell batteries, Long shelf life
  • 3.3 Volt Cell
  • Specific energy: 280 Wh/kg
  • Cathode: Manganese dioxide
  • Anode: Lithium metal

Link to this headingLithium–carbon monofluoride

  • 3 Volt Cell
  • Cathode: Carbon monofluoride
  • Anode: Lithium metal
  • Specific energy: ~400 Wh/kg

Link to this headingLithium iron disulfide (Li-FeS₂)

  • 1.5 Volt Cell
  • Used as High Performance AA Batteries
  • Specific energy: ~300 Wh/kg
  • Cathode: Iron disulfide
  • Anode: Lithium metal

Link to this headingNickel Family (rechargeable)

Link to this headingNickel Zinc

  • 1.65 V Cell
  • Cathode: Nickel oxide hydroxide
  • Anode: Zinc
  • Electrolyte: KOH
  • Specific energy: 100 Wh/kg

Link to this headingNickel Iron

  • Specific Energy: 19-25 kWh
  • Cathode: Nickel oxide hydroxide
  • Anode: Iron
  • Electrolyte: KOH
  • 1.2 V Cell
  • Low efficiency 66%
  • More expensive then Nickel Cadmium

Iron Side of the Battery:

Fe + 2OH^- -> Fe(OH)_2 + 2e^-

Nickel Side of the Battery:

2NiO(OH) + 2H_2O + 2e^- -> 2Ni(OH)_2 + 2OH^-

Link to this headingNickel Cadmium

  • Old and replaced by nickel–metal hydride battery
  • Used in older rechargeable AA batteries
  • 1.2 volts per cell
  • 2,000 cycles
  • Self-discharge rate of 10%/month
  • Anode: Cadmium
  • Cathode: Nickel(III) Oxide-Hydroxide
  • Specific energy: 40–60 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: KOH

Cadmium Side of the Battery:

Cd + 2OH^- -> Cd(OH)_2 + 2e^-

Nickel Side of the Battery:

2NiO(OH) + 2H_2O + 2e^- -> 2Ni(OH)_2 + 2OH^-

Link to this headingNickel Hydrogen

  • No Metal in the Anode
  • High Self discharge
  • Used in space
  • Is pressurized
    • Hard to make a container that doesn’t leak
  • Specific energy: 55–75 Wh/kg (2002), 140 Wh/kg (2018)
  • Anode: Hydrogen
  • Cathode: Nickel oxide hydroxide
  • Specific energy: 40–60 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: KOH

  • 20,000 cycles

  • Charge/discharge efficiency: 85%

Link to this headingNickel–metal hydride

  • 1.2 V Cell
  • Specific energy: 60–120 Wh/kg
  • Anode: Metal hydride
  • Cathode: Nickel oxide hydroxide
  • Specific energy: 40–60 Wh/kg
  • Electrolyte: KOH

Link to this headingLithium-Ion Family (Rechargeable)

Link to this headingJust Lithium

  • While its possible Lithium is costly and there is not an abundance of lithium available

Link to this headingSilicon Carbon Battery

  • Is being used in Phones
  • 400-500 Wh/kg energy density. 30-50% more than Li-ion
  • Fast charging
  • Cathode: Lithium
  • Anode: Silicon Carbon
  • Silicon Expands a bit when charging and shrinks when discharging

Link to this headingLithium Titanate (Li₂TiO₃)

  • 2.4 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 50–80 Wh/kg
  • Cycles: 3,000–7,000
  • Charge Rate: 0.7C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 10C
  • Cathode: lithium manganese oxide or NMC
  • Anode: Li₂TiO₃ (titanate)

Link to this headingLithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂)

  • 3.7 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 150–200Wh/kg
  • Charge Rate: 0.7–1C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 1C
  • Cycles: 500-1000
  • Cathode: LiCoO₂
  • Anode: Graphite or Silicon

Link to this headingLithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

  • Works at Temperature range from -45°C up to 85°C
  • Safer than LiPo but heavier
  • Work better at cold and hot Temperatures
  • Has more recharge cycles
  • 3.2 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 90–120 Wh/kg
  • Cycles: 2000+
  • Charge Rate: 1C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 1C
  • Cathode: LiFePO₄
  • Anode: Graphite or Silicon

Link to this headingLithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn₂O₄)

  • 3.9 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 100–150 Wh/kg
  • Charge Rate: 0.7–1C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 1C
  • Cycles: 300–700
  • Cathode: LiMn₂O₄
  • Anode: Graphite or Silicon

Link to this headingLithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO₂)

  • 3.6 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 200–300 Wh/kg
  • Cycles: 500
  • Charge Rate: 0.7C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 1C
  • Cathode: LiNiCoAlO₂
  • Anode: Graphite or Silicon

Link to this headingLithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO₂)

  • Also known as Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC)
  • 3.6 Voltage per cell
  • Specific energy: 150–220 Wh/kg
  • Cycles: 1000–2000
  • Charge Rate: 1C (About 3hrs)
  • Discharge Rate: 1C
  • Cathode: LiNiMnCoO₂
  • Anode: Graphite or Silicon

Link to this headingLithium Sulfur

  • Low cycles with default
    • 4000 cycles with new breakthrough (2022)
    • 25000 with new break through 2025
  • Slow recharge rate
  • Short lifetime
  • Full charge time of 0.5C (about 2 hr)
  • Full discharge time of 0.5C (about 2 hr)
  • Sulfur and Lithium turn into a liquid when recharging.
  • Cathode: Sulfur
  • Anode: Lithium
  • Electrolyte: Polysulfide
  • Specific energy: 450 Wh/kg

Link to this headingLithium Niobium

  • 140 Wh/kg

  • 3000 cycles

  • Full charge time of 6C (about 1/6 hr)

  • Full discharge time of 6C (about 1/6 hr)

  • Anode: Niobium Titanium Oxide

  • Cathode: Lithium Niobium (Li₃NbO₄)

Link to this headingLithium Ion NMC (Nickle Magnesium Cobalt)

  • Also known as Solid State
  • Nickle Cobalt Manganese
  • 250-300 Wh/Kg
  • 5000 Cycles
  • Full charge time of 1-4C (about 0.25-1 hr)
  • Full discharge time of 1-4C (about 0.25-1 hr)

2026 New:

  • 400 Wh/Kg
  • 5 min Charge
  • 100,000 Cycles
  • -30 - 100 C Operating temperature

Link to this headingRechargeable Batteries

Link to this headingLead Acid

  • Cheap, Heavy old
  • Charge Efficiency: 50%-92%
  • Specific energy: 30-40 Wh/kg
  • Cycle Durability: <350 cycles
  • Cathode: lead dioxide
  • Electrolyte: H₂SO₄
  • Anode: lead metal
  • Voltage: [1.75, 2.1, 2.32] volts per cell

Link to this headingAbsorbent Glass Mat (AGM) Battery

  • 30-50 Wh/kg
  • 500-900 cycles
  • Is a lead Acid battery but stores the acid in a mat rather in the the liquid

Link to this headingNickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH)

  • Used in rechargeable AA batteries
  • Similar to Nickel Hydrogen but without the pressure
  • Better for the environment than Nickel Cadmium
  • Specific energy: 60–120 Wh/kg
  • Cycle Durability: 180–2000 cycles
  • Anode: Rare-earth or nickel alloys with many metals
  • Cathode: Nickel(III) Oxide-Hydroxide

Link to this headingZinc-ion

  • Cheaper, safer, non toxic, easy to recycle. Compared to Lithium
  • Lower energy density than lithium ion. Good for stationary batteries
  • More charge cycles. Longer Lifetime 1.5-2x Lithium
  • New TpBD-2F@Zn film reduces dendrites over 100,000 cycles

Link to this headingAluminum Ion

  • Also Known as Nickle Cobalt Aluminum
  • 160-320 Wh/Kg
  • 6000 Cycles
  • Full charge time of 6C (about 1/6 hr)
  • Full discharge time of 6C (about 1/6 hr)

Link to this headingSodium Ion

  • Heaver than Lithium but since most of the weight comes from Cobalt its not a huge step in weight
  • No Research on it
  • Current energy per weight (175 Wh/Kg in Changan Nevo A06 sedan)
  • Lots of sodium
  • 2000 Cycles
  • Full charge time of 1-3C (about 0.33-1 hr)
  • Full discharge time of 1-3C (about 0.33-1 hr)

Link to this headingSodium Sulfur

  • High temperature battery (300-350 C)
  • Similar Capacity to Lithium Ion (300-400 Wh/L)
  • But Sodium is liquid and highly reactive with other elements like air and water
  • Cathode: Sulfur
  • Anode: Na

Link to this headingPumped storage

  • 70-85% Efficiency
  • Does not store alot of energy

Link to this headingCompressed Air storage

  • 45-70% Efficiency
  • Loses energy through heat when compressed

Link to this headingThermal Storage

  • 30-45% Efficiency
  • Heat volcanic stones
  • Must be huge for good Efficiency
    • Need a good surface area to volume ratio. This decreases the heat that leaves.
  • Cheap
  • 30-60 Wh/kg

Link to this headingHydrogen (Theoretical)

  • 83% Efficiency at room temperature
  • Split water into H and O₂
  • 30,000-60,000 Wh/kg

Link to this headingPractice

  • 60% Efficiency for Electrolysis
  • 50% Efficiency for Fuel Cells

Link to this headingFlow battery

  • 60% Efficiency
  • Refillable

Link to this headingLiquid Air

  • Convert Air in to liquid Nitrogen

Link to this headingCO2 Electrolyzer

Convert 3(CO_2) + 4(H_2O) -> 1(C_3H_8) + 5(O_2)

Source

Link to this headingDual carbon battery

  • Using Graphite layers as both an anode an cathode
    • Made by heating Carbon to 3000C
  • Lightweight and High Energy
  • Specific Energy: 227 Wh/kg (2022)
  • Anode: Carbon fiber
  • Cathode: Carbon fiber

Link to this headingNuclear Battery

  • Used in Space Missions
  • Capture heat from Nuclear Radiation
    • Use a Thermocouple to capture heat and convert into energy
      • Electrons move from the hot side to cold side
  • Very low Wattage in the µWs but can operate for 12 years
  • PJP Eye LTD.

Link to this headingAlpha\Beta\Gama Voltaics

  • Basically a solar panel but instead of capturing the energy from light we use another part of the EM spectrum to capture the energy from Alpha/Beta/Gamma Decay.
  • Cant be made of Silicon Semiconductor since Radiation breaks-down the Semiconductor.
    • Instead use Diamond(Carbon) as the semiconductor.